Taoism may be regarded as both philosophy or religion in its essence. At its core is understanding the energy of the world. The way of the Tao is “going with the flow” in accordance with the Tao (or Dao). The flow is a cosmic force that both binds all things and the universe and also lets them go.  

Taoism exerted a great influence during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and the emperor Xuanzong (reigned 712-756 CE) decreed it a state religion, mandating that people keep Taoist writings in their home. Taoism declined with the Tang Dynasty and was replaced by  Confucianism  and  Buddhism.  

Today the way of the Tao is still practiced throughout China and other countries today.  

In this article we’ll explore the ancient art of Taoism including: 

• Benefits of Taoist meditation for anxiety 
• 5 Steps of harnessing your inner Tao 
• Balancing the Yin and Yang 

Benefits of Taoist Meditation for Anxiety

You may be surprised to hear the rise of an ancient philosophy of Taoism. Parallel to many meditation and mindfulness practices, the way of the Tao is rooted in Chinese philosophy and aligning the body to the earth and broader universe.

“Huang Di asked: ‘I’ve heard of people in ancient times, spoken of as the immortals, who knew the secrets of the universe and held the world in the palm of their hands. They extracted essence from nature and practiced Chi Kung and various stretching and breathing exercises, and visualizations, to integrate body, mind and spirit. They remained undisturbed and thus attained extraordinary levels of accomplishment. Can you tell me about them?’”

-The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Medicine

Image: The inner alchemist is shown meditating in a chair, with the external alchemist fanning the fires of transformation

Taoist Inner Alchemy is the big payoff for the hard work of learning and practicing exercises of meditation, chi kung, and strengthening the body. The way I understand and teach inner alchemy is that it’s a process of absorbing a variety of energies from nature and blending those energies with our own.

The result is to grow closer to the pattern of nature itself. Nature has its ups and downs, its cycles, its violent upheavals, and quiet periods of seeming nothingness. However, in spite of these fluctuations, the Taoist philosophy is that nature is in balance overall.

As an example, of blending and absorbing different energies, Taoist astrology states that each of us has an individual disposition based on the time and place that we were born. The planets push and pull on us in different ways at different times of our lives. We have free will choices when faced with opportunities and threats from these fates, but ultimately, we must play the card we are dealt. Taoist inner alchemy helps you practically use these principles for meditation practice.

By inviting energy from the planets and seasons into our bodies and meditation processes, it adds to our weakness and softens our strengths to move us toward balance. Similarly, inviting the energies from the range of solar system and zodiac constellations into the body, mixing them with our individual essence, and storing that energy in our organs and bones gives us opportunities to heal with the Tao flow of nature.

Step 1: The 5 Natural Energies of Taoism 

Today you may refer to inner alchemy as meditation or mindfulness. You’d be surprised to know that Taoism describes its meditation practice in a step-by-step fashion.   

Internal Alchemy can buffer us from an “onslaught” of a particular type of energy that might challenge us.   

Inner Alchemy Map from Taoist Master Mantak Chia

To understand the map of Taoist alchemy, it is helpful to explain the sequence of practice.  At any level, it works with balancing yin and yang and harmonizing the five elements.   

The five Taoist elements are:  

1. Energy inside the body   
2. Energy of planet Earth.   
3. Energies at the level of the solar system 
4. Energy of the stars of our galaxy 
5. Energy of spirit and matter  

Finally merging with the Tao itself.  It is worth thinking of this process as climbing a sacred mountain or building a great cathedral.  It is done from the ground up and without skipping steps. 

For example: for those not born with a lot of the fire element, such as the planet Mars, we can slowly invite the energy of Mars into our body and energy field.  Additionally, we can invite the balancing energies into our process and they can help support us when that fiery, planetary energy knocks on our door. 

Step 2: How Taoism Guides the ‘Inner Smile’ and Harmony  

At the first level of inner alchemy, Taoism teaches the Fusion of the Five Elements.  The five elements inside the body correspond to the vital organs that were outlined in the explanation of the Inner Smile and the Six Healing Sounds.   

Fusion of the Five Elements

Fusion 1:

• Unites various aspects of our psychology and personality into balance and then merges them in the center.  The first part of the Fusion 1 practice encourages the energy to flow in a pattern called the Creation Cycle, where each element feeds the one that comes after it in the cycle.   

• Merging the various aspects of the personality into the center of the lower abdomen, at the level of the navel.  Before this practice, it is common for different aspects of our personality to want to go in different directions.  For instance, our heart or fire aspects may want to chase fame and excitement.   

This can sharply contrast with our kidneys or water aspects that want to settle into a groove and rest at home.  By practicing the Fusion 1 practice, our elements blend together, and we do not have the inner struggle we once had.   

Fusion 2 and 3:  

• Opening of the deep channels of our body, known as the Eight Extraordinary Channels.  When these are open and flowing like great rivers, the balanced energy of the Inner Smile and the Fusion 1 practice can nourish deeper aspects of our being. 

Step 3: How to Balance the Yin and Yang Energy and Tao Self-Healing 

Image: Taoism Alchemy of the 5 elements and how they balance Yin and Yang Energy.

In the next level of alchemy, that of Water and Fire, the Primal Fire and Primal Water or Inner Male (Yang) and Inner Female (Yin) are blended together in the lower abdomen.   

The imagery here is like that of a metal pot of boiling water above a fire, sitting on the earth.   

In this image, all five elements are involved. You can think of it in this sequence: 

1. Wood feeds 
2. Fire  
3. Metal holds 
4. Water 
5. All rest on the earth.   

This visualization meditation is the next level of the Fusion practice and the meditation is more dynamic.  The process creates a healing steam that can flow or be guided through the channels of the body to rejuvenate organs, glands, bones, and vessels. 

From the deep psyche of the physical body in Water and Fire Alchemy, the alchemist moves to the outer environment of the Earth.   

The five elements here become represented in different ways.   

• The alchemist breathes in the wood element by relating to forests and all things that grow. He resonates with the fire of lava and the passions of humans and animals, and the sun. 
• The planet Earth itself embodies the earth element at this level.  
• The metal element is represented by clouds, metals inside the earth, and the descending energy of waterfalls.  
• The water element is embodied by rivers, lakes, the oceans, and the deep memory of the collective chi field.  In Sun-Moon-Earth alchemy, yin and yang are symbolized by the sun and moon, and the impact of their cycles on the earth and its inhabitants. The imagery of the boiling pot of water becomes the sun and the moon joining in a loving embrace with the earth holding the center for their beautiful dance.  

The meditation moves from the navel and lower abdomen to the three-dimensional space of the solar plexus.  The Creation Cycle meditation from the Fusion 1 practice can still be done inside the physical body, but it can include the energies of the seasons transforming from one to the next in an endless cycle.   

Step 4: Tao Solar System Astronomy, and Alchemy of the Planets

As Tao meditation advances, from the Earth’s perspective, the alchemist then steps up to the relationship of yin/yang and the five elements at the level of the Solar System.  

From the Solar System’s perspective, the five elements are the inner planets, the ones that can be seen with the naked eye.   

As I understand it, Yin and Yang are the fire of the Inner Earth and the water of Polaris, the Pole Star.   

• Wood element is represented by the expansive planet Jupiter. 
• Fire element is embodied by the red planet, Mars.  
• The earth element is seen as the balanced planet Saturn, with its beautiful belt channel rings.  
• The metal element is represented by Venus, with the qualities of the goddess of beauty. 
• The water element shows its qualities through Mercury, as it dances through the sky, flowing forward and backward.   

The seat of this alchemy in the body is the heart, as the heart has the radiant qualities of the outer sun, but also the magnetic qualities of the inner sun. 

Step 5: Achieving Higher Consciousness with Tao Zodiac Alchemy 

From the heart and the center of the Solar System, the next stop for the alchemical process is the upper tan tien.  This is the three-dimensional space behind the third eye or pineal gland, and in the macrocosm, at the center of the galaxy.   

This level of alchemy is known as Star Alchemy, and blends the star quadrants of the north, south, east, and west with the center.  Psychologically, this process alludes to the functioning of time and timelessness.   

The stars move so slowly, compared to humans, that they are on an entirely different cycle of existence.  Similarly, the Big Dipper moves around the stationary North Star, marking out the seasons like a cosmic watch dial.   

The yang or fire element at this level is Polaris, the Pole Star.  The yin or water element is the star Vega, which is said to be the Earth’s once and future Pole Star. Vega takes turns with Polaris on cycles that are tens of thousands of years.  This level of the alchemical process also includes the “Sealing of the Five Senses,” where one energetically turns the sense organs inward to reverse the usual loss of energy.  This encourages the adept to look, listen, smell, taste, and feel the internal process of the body.  

Seeing the alchemical process outside helps to see it inside

Conclusion 

Taoism, and its practice of meditative alchemy, a practitioner learns a practice called The Congress of Heaven and Earth.  At this level, there is less to say and more to feel.  It is a merging of spirit and matter; feeling the energy of creation inside the body.  The merging of alchemy moves back to the heart and the center of the being.

When Heaven is experienced on Earth and Heaven knows the excitement, passion, and variety of life on Earth; the joy of merging polarities is experienced by everyone aware of the process. 

The end, or perhaps the beginning, of this spiritual path is the Union of Man and Tao.  The teachers on this path say that it can’t be taught; that is needs to be experienced from the Tao itself. 

I believe it is a returning to our original nature; therefore, we are all capable of it and once knew how to be it naturally.  It seems that the process is a stripping away of what is not us.  This can happen at the moment of death, but the adept hopes to experience it before then and enjoy the accompanying level of enlightenment.

-Adapted from The Alchemist’s Tao Te Ching: Transforming Your Lead into Gold, by Andrew McCart 

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The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, consisting of 12 months of 354 or 355 days. Purely based on moon phases it drifts 10 days annually and does not sync with the seasons.  

The year begins with the month of Muharram (1st Muharram being 21st September 2018) and the current year is 1440. It repeats the lunar cycle with the dates taking 33 years to cycle through before appearing again. 

The beginning of each month is marked by the observance of a new moon, visibility of the new moon depends on various factors therefore this Islamic Calendar is only an estimate. 

Who Invented the Islamic Calendar?  

The first year of the Islamic Calendar was 622 AD; it is currently the 15th century according to the Islamic Calendar. The calendar’s beginning is marked by the time that the Prophet Muhammad migrated from Makkah to Medina–one of the most iconic events of Islamic history. This event is also known as ‘hijra’, which is also the name of the calendar itself.  

It was first introduced by Hazrat Umar bin Al Khattab, in 638 AD, a close friend of the Prophet Muhammad. The calendar was brought in to help reconcile the many other calendric systems that were used in ancient times, often with conflicting and confusing dates. 

The Islamic calendar holds deep symbolic meaning for the Islamic faith. Each month represents deep religious practices and also marks Islamic religious festivals in which remembrance and gratitude are offered.

What Day is it on the Islamic Calendar? 

The Islamic calendar is traditionally marked by observation and not calculation. This makes it difficult to predict, and depends on seeing the lunar cycles.   

Each day begins in the evening with the appearance of the waxing crescent moon marks the start of a new cycle. This observation must occur through human eyes.  

The observations of the moon occur just after sunset, meaning the day begins in the evening.  

This is only true if the moon is visible in the evening of the 29th day of the month. If it hasn’t appeared by then, a 30th day is added to that month.  

A waxing crescent is visible just after the New Moon arrives, which is why the Islamic month usually begins on the 2nd or 3rd day according to the Gregorian calendar. 

Weather and Predicting the Islamic Month  

As the Calendar is dependent on actual human observation, the length of months are impossible to predict. Traditionally, a person of authority or a holy group is in charge of marking the new moon.  

Natural factors like cloud cover and bad weather affect the calendar. If the waxing moon has appeared but is unable to be seen the start of the new month falls a day later in the year. 

The Islamic Calendar primary function was not originally for agricultural purposes; instead, it is used just to keep time.  

Equinoxes and solstices have no influence, nor does the solar day.  

How many months are in the Islamic calendar? 

Each month of the Islamic Calendar holds unique symbolism. Four months are deemed to be sacred, and require religious practices to be carried out whenever they begin each year. 

The 12 months that make up the Islamic calendar are:*

1. Muharram 
2. Safar 
3. Rabi-Al-Awwal 
4. Rabi-Al-Thani 
5. Jumada-Al-Awwal 
6. Jumada-Al-Thani 
7. Rajab 
8. Shaban 
9. Ramadan 
10. Shawwal 
11. Zul-Qaadah 
12. Zul-Hijjah 

*Note – Spelling of the months may vary depending on the source used 

The first day of Year One of the Islamic calendar was set as the first day of the Hijrah, the Prophet’s migration from Makkah to Madinah on July 26, 622 C.E.  

Christian convention in designating Islamic dates is thus by the abbreviation AH, which stands for the Latin Anno Hegirae, or ‘Year of the Hijrah’. 

Islamic Calendar 2019

Length of the Islamic Year  

As the time between one new moon and the next is roughly 29.5 days, the Islamic months vary each year from 29 to 30 days in length. Compared to the solar Gregorian calendar, each month is around a day shorter than the solar month. This means the year is around 11 days shorter than the Gregorian year of 365 days. 

The subtle change throughout the year means the Islamic Calendar is moving slowly back from the Gregorian system. That being said, the Islamic Calendar is moving faster than the Gregorian, with 33 lunar years equaling about 32 solar years. 

Converting the Islamic Year to Gregorian 

To roughly convert an Islamic calendar year (AH) into a Gregorian equivalent (A.D./C.E.), or vice versa, use one of the following equations. 

AD = 622 + (32/33 x AH)
 

AH = 33 / 32 x (AD – 622) 

Calculating Islamic Leap Years 

The traditional Islamic Calendar does not include or add leap years. Even though a lunar year is shorter than a solar year, the Islamic Calendar has no reconciling days added. As this is the case, the Islamic calendar slowly approaches the Gregorian date.  

It happens very slowly with another 18,000 years still to go until the two are level; it won’t be until the year 20,874 that the two calendar systems will match up. 

Modern use of the Hijrah Calendar 

Although much of the world now follows the Gregorian calendar for civic purposes, the Islamic calendar is still the officially recognized calendar in many Islamic countries around the world.  

Religious and holy celebrations, as well as daily life practices are all tied in with the Islamic calendar; whose significance is extremely important to billions around the world. 

It has a 30-year cycle with 11 leap years of 355 days and 19 years of 354 days.

In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2,500 solar years or 2,570 lunar years. It also deviates up to about one or two days in the short term. 

How Often is Ramadan Celebrated?  

The month of Ramadan is dedicated to spiritual reflection and worship. Fasting from sunrise to sunset as well as abstaining from sex is practiced. Historical events are also symbolized throughout the year in certain months. The first month of the year signifies Moses parting the Red Sea in ancient times, which is remembered and celebrated during Muharram. 

The months of Muharram, Rajab, Zul-Qaadah, and Zul-Hijjah are considered sacred according the calendar. Fighting, battles and war are prohibited during these months, and instead peace is sought. Along with these holy months, there is special significance attributed to many other times of the year. 

Islamic Calendar 2019

Meaning of the Twelve Islamic Months 

1. Muḥarram: Forbidden 

A sacred month, so called because battle and all kinds of fighting are forbidden (ḥarām) during this month. Muḥarram includes ‘Āshūrā’, the tenth day. 

  2.  Ṣafar: Void 

Supposedly named thus because pre-Islamic Arab houses were empty this time of year while their occupants gathered food. Another account relates that they used to loot the houses of their enemies after defeating them in battle, leaving nothing behind. 

 3. Rabī‘ al–awwal: The first spring 

Also means to graze, because cattle were grazed during this month. Also a very holy month of celebration for many Muslims, as it was the month the Prophet Muhammad was born. 

4.  Rabī‘ ath-thānī: The second spring 

  5. Jumādá al-ūlá: the first of parched land 

Often considered the pre-Islamic summer. Jumādá may also be related to a verb meaning “to freeze” and another account relates that water would freeze during this time of year. 

6. Jumādáal-ākhirah: The last of parched land  

  7. Rajab: respect, honor 

This is the second sacred month in which fighting is forbidden. Rajab may also be related to a verb meaning “to remove”, so called because pre-Islamic Arabs would remove the heads of their spears and refrain from fighting. 

8. Sha‘bān– Scattered 

Marked the time of year when Arab tribes dispersed to find water. Sha‘bān may also be related to a verb meaning “to be in between two things”. Another account relates that it was called thus because the month lies between Rajab and Ramaḍān. 

9. Ramaḍān– Burning heat 

Burning is related to fasting as in empty stomach one’s worldly desire will burn. Supposedly so called because of high temperatures caused by the excessive heat of the sun.  

Ramaḍān is the most venerated month of the Hijri calendar. During this time, Muslims must fast from pre-dawn till sunset and should give charity to the poor and needy. 

10. Shawwāl– Raised 

She-camels would normally be in calf at this time of year and raise their tails 

11.  Dhū al-Qa‘dah – The one of truce/sitting 

This is a holy month during which war is banned. People are allowed to defend themselves if attacked. 

12. Dhū al-Ḥijjah – the one of pilgrimage 

During this month Muslim pilgrims from all around the world congregate at Mecca to visit the Kaaba. The Hajj is performed on the eighth, ninth and the tenth of this month.  

The Day of Arafah takes place on the ninth of the month. Eid al-Adha, the “Festival of the Sacrifice”, begins on the tenth day and ends on sunset of the twelfth, and during which war is banned. 

Conclusion

Across the world the Islamic Calendar remains as one of the most sacred and practiced systems in the world.

Now we’d like to hear from you.

Tell us your thoughts on the Hijri Calendar. Leave your thoughts in the comment section below.

Further reading:  

https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/islamic-calendar.html 

http://www.webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-islamic.html 

http://www.quranreading.com/blog/the-history-and-great-importance-of-islamic-months/ 

http://www1.cbn.com/onlinediscipleship/please-explain-for-me-the-islamic-calendar 

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The most common way to mark a new day is when the clock strikes twelve midnight. As the sun rises and the world begins slowly waking up, it is generally agreed that it is the start of a new day. However, for the Hebrew Calendar, it literally marks the new day at sunrise, not sunset. 

It is one aspect of a complex time-keeping system. By measuring not only by the sun, but also the moon cycles, it is a lunisolar calendar.  

As the basis of the Jewish religion, it also measures how astronomy affects the human state. Jewish astrology and zodiac signs that is believed to link to states of higher consciousness.

What are the Jewish Months? 

The 12 months that make up the Hebrew calendar and their general place within the Gregorian calendar are as follows:

• Shevat (January-February) 
• Adar (February-March) 
• Nisan (March-April) 
• Iyyar (April-May) 
• Sivan (May-June) 
• Tammuz (June-July) 
• Av (July-August) 
• Elul (August-September) 
• Tishrei (September-October) 
• Heshvan (October-November) 
• Kislev (November-December) 
• Tevet (December-January) 

In the case of a leap year, the additional month added to the calendar is known as Adar II and is inserted after the month of Adar. 

How long is a Jewish Year? 

According to the Hebrew calendar, the length of year varies slightly from year to year. This variation comes depending on whether it is a leap year or not. A regular Jewish Year consists of between 353 and 355 days.  

It includes six twenty-nine-day-months and six thirty-day-months, which splits the lunar calendar of roughly 29.5 days evenly among each month. 

A leap year is made up of 383, 384, or 385 days. This is true because of the additional month that is added to the Hebrew calendar whenever a leap year falls. 

What Jewish Year is it? 

The Jewish year begins at Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year) and marks the beginning of the month of Tishrei. The name translated loosely to ‘head of the year’ and marks the time that mankind was created.  

Although this is the 9th month in relation to the Gregorian calendar, it is the 7th according to the Hebrew counterpart. By the Hebrew calendars calculations it is the year 5779, with the count beginning at 3761 BC. 

What is the Hebrew Calendar Based On? 

The Hebrew calendar marks a count between three cycles in the solar system:  

1. The rotation of the Earth around its axis  
2. The moon’s orbit around the Earth  
3. The Earth’s orbit around the sun 

It is from these three cycles of time that the Hebrew calendar’s days, months, and years are made. This concept isn’t too different from the Gregorian calendar, the most common system used throughout the world, but it is much more complex.

Image: The Jewish year and how it separates into days and months. Source

The Hebrew Calendar is used to perform two specific tasks. The first is serving as a tool to help reconcile the solar and lunar calendars. The second is to ensure that Jewish religious holidays and festivals are always celebrated at the right time of year. Jewish festivals are marked by astronomical events.  

These mark important points in time celebrated at times when astronomical. Also the lunar and solar lengths grew further apart.  

The Hebrew Calendar adheres strictly to the motions of our planet in the solar system. That means balancing the lunar cycle and the solar cycle, making it a Lunisolar calendar.  

The influence of the sun and moon is in constant ebb and flow. There are things that effect our relationship to them including gravity, orbit variables, as well as the moon phases.  

As these celestial cycles play out in the real world, the calendar system tracks them.

The Difference Between the Gregorian Calendar and the Hebrew Calendar 

The Gregorian calendar is a purely solar one. This means it measures only the Earth’s rotation around the sun. It amounts to one solar year of 365 days. To keep the calendar synched up to this number, each month has 28, 30, or 31 days. These are arbitrary numbers adopted for simplicity.  

The Hebrew system, combines both planetary motions in a beautiful way. It records the coinciding of the lunar months with the solar year.  

It’s no easy task. 

The lunar and solar cycles are quite different to each other in length. When measuring the two, one pulls ahead of the other. To counter this, repeating cycles in place to help ‘restart’ the dates and keep everything in line. 

Each Jewish lunar cycle (or lunar month) is around 29.5305 days whereas each solar year is 365.242 days. Because these two numbers don’t divide into each other, a lunar year usually works out to be 11 days shorter than a solar year.  

To help bridge the gap between the two, there is occasionally a leap month added to the year. This is similar to the Chinese calendar and is inserted periodically to keep the calendars in sync. 

The 19-Year Cycle and the Harmony of the Leap Year 

As the time flows and shifts, there are subtle differences that begin appearing between the solar and lunar years. This is why there is sometime a leaps month added to the Hebrew calendar. The insertion of this month works as part of a 19-year cycle that always restarts to keep the calendar in time. 

Within this 19-year cycle, there are 12 regular years, and seven leap years. These leap years occur when an extra ‘leap’ month is added to the Hebrew calendar. 

Every 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th year within the 19–year cycle there is a leap month inserted into the calendar. This may seem a little complicated at first, however it is quite the opposite. In a similar way to the harmony of music, the cycles of leap years follow the same scale:

Image: The leap years of the Hebrew calendar in relation to the musical scale. Source

When comparing the Hebrew leap years with the musical scale, notice the pattern that emerges. For each ‘tone’ there are two regular years and one leap year, while for each semi-tone there is one regular year and one leap year.  

The cycle is in harmony with the solar system as music is within a scale. 

Astrology & Zodiac Signs of the Hebrew Calendar

The Hebrew calendar does more than just measure time. It also takes into account more personal purposes. Each month of the Jewish year equates sign of the Jewish zodiac, a color, one of the 12 tribes of Israel, a part of the body, as well as a sense.  

As one understands the calendar, it is thought that a deeper personal knowledge will be gained. 

Image: The 12 months of the year with their Jewish Zodiac Signs and traits. Source

The Jewish faith says that once an individual understands the Hebrew calendar they will better understand their place in the world.  

The solar system and cycles of time are said to help reach states of higher consciousness.

Conclusion 

The Hebrew Calendar is one of precision and cultural meaning. Not only does it measure the motions of the sun and the moon, it relates human’s to these cycles which helps us better understand our place in the wider universe.  

The Jewish religion and astrology is one based on master astronomers to observe and document the slow cycles of the heavens above. Each of these show the elegance of ancient astronomy.  

Now it’s up to you. Do you use the Hebrew Calendar? Do you see similarities to systems used by other cultures?

Further readings:

https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/526875/jewish/The-Jewish-Calendar-Year.htm 

https://www.lzb.lt/en/2017/02/10/some-features-of-the-jewish-calendar/ 

https://www.broydeblog.net/uploads/8/0/4/0/80408218/mathematical_analysis_s.pdf 

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However, as you probably already know, it’s far from the only type of calendar in existence. Across the centuries, different groups of people have used different ways of keeping track of the date, based on what they observe in the natural world around them, particularly up in the stars.  

One especially unique example, of course, is the Khmer Calendar system. This calendar system is the one used in Cambodia, a predominantly Buddhist country. And while it does share some similarities and differences with the Gregorian calendar, it also has many things in common with another popular type of calendar. 

What is the Khmer Calendar? 

The Khmer traditional calendar system is categorized as a lunisolar calendar system. That means that it consists of both a lunar calendar and a solar calendar. However, the latter tends to see more use than the former. Interestingly enough, the Khmer calendar is also known as Chhankitek, which means “lunar calendar.”  

There are a number of significant differences between the Gregorian calendar and the Khmer calendar, which will all be touched upon below. 

Like the Gregorian calendar, the Khmer calendar follows the 12-month scheme, and also counts days following the same format. However, one of the key differences here is that the Khmer calendar, which is used mainly by Cambodians, uses the Buddhist Era as its demarcation line for years, instead of the Common Era. That’s because a significant chunk of Cambodians are Buddhists. 

Following Common Era (standards and to give you a better idea of how it works, the Buddhist Era (BE) formally started upon Gautama Buddha’s death in 544 BCE. 

The Astronomical Basis of the Khmer Calendar 

The Khmer calendar follows both the movement of the moon and the solar year. This is to guarantee that the seasons won’t drift, and will remain consistent with the time that passes between them in nature. It’s been used by farmers who depend on accurate timing and weather readings to ensure a good harvest for that year. However these cycles had great importance across all calendar systems. These include the Chinese Calendar, Hindu Calendar, Egyptian and Mayan Calendars.  

Instead of leap years with one extra day, an additional month or day is added to a particular year, making up for the discrepancy between the number of days in a lunar year and the number of days in a solar year. 

Khmer Astrology and Zodiac Signs 

People who follow the Khmer calendar use a system of 12 animals to identify the Cambodian year: rat (Jute), ox (Chlov), tiger (Karl), rabbit (Thos), dragon (Rorng), snake (Masagn), horse (Momee), goat (Mokay), monkey (Voke), rooster (Roka), dog (Jor), and pig (Koar). The animals match the Chinese zodiac. Take note that the Khmer names of each animal is not its translation, but a special name created for the year.  

Much like Chinese astrology, Khmer zodiac signs have unique traits reflected in the people born under their respective years.  

For example, according to the Khmer calendar, 2019 is the year of the pig, which means that anyone born this year is expected to possess the traits normally associated with Koar. 

Additionally, the 12-animal system follows a ten-year numeric cycle, making it easier for you if you want to manually determine which animal was the designated animal for, say, 1988. 

Similarly, the Khmer solar months correspond to the months on the Gregorian calendar.

See the table below. 

The Khmer Lunar Months 

So now that we know what the solar months are — what, then, are the lunar months? 

A lunar month lasts for about 29.5 days, and a lunar years is approximately 354 days. Due to the discrepancy between the total length of time of a lunar year versus that of a solar year, the Khmer calendar adds an extra month every two to three years. 

The beginning of a lunar month (or Reak) under the Khmer calendar is marked by a new moon. Mekasay has 29, days until the next one, for instance, while Bos has 30. A leap year may have either an extra month or an extra day. It may sound confusing at first, but it just takes some getting used to. 

If a year has an extra day (a total of 355), it is known as Chhantrea Thimeas or Adhikavereak. Meanwhile, a year with an extra month (for a total of 384 days) is called Adhikameas. Last but not the least is the extra leap-day, which happens in Jais (30 days instead of 29). 

In the Khmer system, leap months can only happen during the month of Ashad, and not in any other month. If your year has an extra month (Adhikameas), then it will certainly fall under either Badhamasad or Thutiyasad. Take note that on just like on the Chinese calendar, no year can have both an extra day and an extra month. It’s just one or the other. 

See the table below for the list of lunar months and their corresponding number of days.

Khmer days, Religious Festivals and Calculating the New Year 

When counting days, the Khmer calendar uses the Keit and Roaj units. From one to fifteen days, Keit covers the moon’s waxing phase, then counts from a new moon to a full moon. Roaj, on the other hand, pertains to the moon’s waning phase (from full moon to new moon). 

When it comes to celebrating the Khmer New Year, a new system has been adopted since the end of the Angkor era. Long ago, the New Year began with the month of Mekasay, which coincided with the tenth month on the Chinese calendar (and either December or January on the Gregorian calendar). The celebration used to last an entire month (half of it prior to the New Year date, half of it after). 

However, ever since Cambodians started adopting both the lunisolar and solar calendar systems, the Khmer system had to adapt as well. 

Now, the Khmer New Year coincides with April on the Gregorian calendar (typically the 13th or 14th), since that’s the time when farmers no longer need to worry about completing their farming tasks, and are free to celebrate the New Year. Another change to the celebration is that now, it only lasts 3 to 4 days at most, instead of an entire month. 

The Cambodian New Year celebration is comprised of three days, which are as follows:

1. The Maha Sangkran, which is the first day of the New Year celebration. On this day, people visit shrines to light candles and incense sticks. Family members honor the Buddha’s teachings by kneeling before his image three times and prostrating themselves. 
2. The Virak Vanabat, which is the second day of the New Year celebration. On this day, people make charitable donations to the poor, perform volunteer acts or share kindness with those in need, and visit monasteries to attend dedication ceremonies to their long-gone ancestors. 
3. T’ngai Loeng Sak is the name of the third day of the New Year celebration. Buddhists mark this special occasion by washing Buddha statues with fragrant water — a symbolic gesture that stands for the washing away of past bad deeds. The washing gesture is also perceived as a kind deed that brings positivity to the life of the person performing the cleansing act. 

Conclusion 

One can say that the Khmer lunisolar calendar is actually more dependent on mathematical calculations than actual astronomy. While it takes most of the uncertainty and guesswork out of monitoring the date, it does require a bit more patience and effort before you can use the system properly, especially if you’re used to following the Gregorian calendar system. 

Despite its similarities with the Chinese calendar, its reduced reliance on astronomy differs with well-defined and mathematical measures for calculating days, months, and years. This is likely the reason why the system has worked so well for Cambodians, and is also why there are so many available apps for calculating and tracking the Khmer calendar. 

Unfortunately, for the rest of the world, it may be too much of a glaring change to be fully adopted into everyday use. Today we can use the Khmer calendar to track the history of the Cambodian people.  

What do you think of the Khmer calendar? Do you think a system would work more widely used across the world?  

Leave your thoughts in the comments section below. 

Further reading:  

• http://www.cam-cc.org/calendar/chhankitek.php  
• https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=XnRVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA339&lpg=PA339&dq=%22khmer+calendar%22+history&source=bl&ots=JJd264IXsB&sig=ACfU3U2-LVovzp1OpQDz7YJ3mWhbG5mOgA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwia65rv2vbgAhXHF4gKHRg6AHk4ChDoATAFegQICRAB#v=onepage&q=%22khmer%20calendar%22%20history&f=false  

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It is the cornerstone of the ancient Indian Civilization. Approximately 890 million Hindus live in India, placing it as the world’s third largest religion after Christianity and Islam. Other countries with large Hindu populations include Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Malaysia. 

They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the new year to start. 

It counts time that goes so far back in time, it pre-dates the arrival of homo-sapiens on Earth. It refers back to a time more than 4 million years ago.  

Let’s break down how the Hindu Calendar works.  

What is the Hindu Calendar Based on? 

The Hindu calendar itself is a lunisolar calendar, which means it uses both the phases of the moon to keep time as well as the Earth’s rotation around the sun. It is the combination of these two celestial movements that determine the day, month, and year of the Hindu calendar. Because of the nature of lunisolar calendars, there is always a precise month, and an approximation of the year. 

As astronomical markers, they are an extremely accurate tool to measure the time and seasons. The Hindu calendar was originally used to determine when to plant and harvest crops, when to celebrate religious and spiritual festivals, as well as keeping track of the motions of the visible universe. 

Not only is the Hindu calendar used to keep track of the date, it has a spiritual significance as well and is heavily tied to the ancient science of astrology. Although this practice’s original purpose has been lost and polluted in modern times, it was once a way of life that was as influential as it was important to our ancient ancestors.  

The dates according to the Hindu Calendar are not fixed, so they tend to vary and change from year to year. This is because the calendar is both religious and astronomical, meaning dates are determined by phenomena observed throughout the cosmos. 

How does the Hindu Calendar Work? 

Image: The Months and days of the 2019 Hindu Calendar, translated to the Gregorian Calendar.

The Hindu Day 

Similar to the Gregorian calendar that much of the world uses today, a day in the Hindu calendar begins at dawn. However, unlike its Gregorian counterpart, the Hindu calendar splits the day into 30 passages of time known as muhurtas. Each of these lasts roughly 48 minutes and are similar to the Gregorian concept of hours. 

There are seven days that make up a week according to the Hindu Calendar, beginning with Ravi, the equivalent of Sunday: 

1. Ravi (Sunday) 
2. Soma (Monday) 
3. Mangala (Tuesday) 
4. Budha (Wednesday) 
5. Guru (Thursday) 
6. Brhaspati (Friday) 
7. Sani (Saturday) 

The Hindu Month  

The length of the month is tied directly to the lunar calendar. Basically, a full phase of the moon equates to a month of the Hindu calendar. As each lunar cycle is roughly 29.5 days long, each month of the Hindu calendar is somewhere around that length. Usually 28, 29, or 30 days depending on slight changes within the lunar cycle. 

The first day of the month varies depending on where you are from in India, however, generally either the full moon or the new moon mark the new month’s first day.

Image: The Hindu Calendar laid out in days and months of the year.

Hindu Astrology and Zodiac Signs

Image: The Hindu Zodiac signs line up to conventional Astrology. Source

There are 12 months and each one is named after a sign of the zodiac. As the Earth makes its slow transition around the sun over the course of a year, we move from one zodiacal sign to the next, until we have passed all 12 and the year is complete. Depending on which sign of the zodiac the sun appears to rise against determines what month it is. 

If the sun enters a new sign of the zodiac before sunrise, then it is the first day of a new month, however if it does not, then it’s the last day of the previous month. The 12 months of the Hindu calendar are as follows: 

• Chaitra (Aries) 
• Vaisakha (Taurus) 
• Jyaistha (Gemini) 
• Asadha (Cancer)
• Sravana (Leo) 
• Bhadrapada (Virgo) 
• Asvina (Libra) 
• Kartika (Scorpio) 
• Agrahayana (Sagittarius)
• Pausa (Capricorn) 
• Magha (Aquarius) 
• Phalguna (Pisces) 

Each month is separated into two halves that are known as fortnights–one light and one dark. The light fortnight is a 15-day period that follows the waxing moon, while the dark fortnight begins with the waning moon.

Leap Months  

Generally, a year of the Hindu calendar lasts around 354 days, made up of 12 lunar months of around 29.5 days. As this is roughly 11 days shorter than the solar year, a gap begins to appear between the lunar and solar dates. To reconcile this gap, a leap month is added every three or so years to fix this difference. 

This leap month helps religious festivals and other important dates in the Hindu calendar to remain within a fixed period of time rather than on a set date each year. This is different to the Gregorian calendar, in which the same occasion happens on the same date every year. The Hindu calendar relies on astronomy and therefore keeps a truer date for celebrations that occur annually.

Hindu Religion Festivals Dates

• Diwali is the festival of lights for Hindus and Sikhs. akes place in October or November, but the date is different each year because it is based on the Hindu calendar.  

• Maker Sankranti is celebrated on the January 13 and it is the first Hindu holiday  

• Maha Shivaratri: celebrations honor Shiva, destroyer of the universe. Unlike other Hindu celebrations, this one is celebrated the night and day before the new moon. 

• Holi: is most commonly celebrated in Northern India and usually takes place in February or March. oli is called “The Festival of Colors” because people paint each other and throw dye and colorful powder all over their bodies 

• Ram Navami: takes place in April and celebrates the birth of Lord Rama. On this holiday, Hindus clean and decorate their houses with fruits and flowers.

• Raksha Bandan: celebrates love for comrades and brothers. Hindus celebrate it when there is a full moon. This usually takes place in August.  

• Janmashtami: is a festival celebrating Krishna’s birth. Krishna is god that Hindus worship the most. They celebrate his birthday in August, eight days after Raksha Bandhan. The celebration lasts two days. 

• Navaratri: is a fun and religious holiday in October. During this time, Hindus from all over India put aside their daily chores and prepare for Navaratri, a nine-day celebration honoring three goddesses of the religion: Durga.

Calculating the New Year 

Each New Year has its own name according to the Hindu calendar. There are 60 individual names that continually change until the 60-year period is up and the cycle starts again. The New Year is determined as the sun moves into the zodiacal sign of Capricorn, making it a purely astronomical observation. This varies from place to place, however it usually falls the day after the new moon during the month of Chaitra (Aries).

What is the Year According to the Hindu Calendar? 

Much like we do when talking about someone’s age, the Hindu calendar counts from the beginning of the current era, which began in 3102 BC. By this reckoning, the current year as of 2019 is 5121.

The Yuga Cycles & Hindu Calendar   

The current Hindu calendar also takes into count much larger spans of time. It was in the year 3102 BC that the most recent Yuga cycle started, and the Hindu calendar began counting. This was an extremely interesting and little understood time in our Earth’s prehistory, with many of the earliest civilizations appearing across the world in this era almost simultaneously. 

That is according to the Hindu Yuga cycle, which still continues to this day. We are currently living in the 4th stage of the Yuga cycle known as the Kali Yuga, which is a 432,000 year time period and the final chapter of the cycle as a whole. 

Conclusion 

Although the Hindu calendar has undergone much reform and change throughout the years, its original form is one of ancient origins. The way it reflected spiritual and personal growth, as well as astronomical information is something that is not taken into account in the more modern era, yet was once extremely important to our ancestors.  

The mystery remains; what inspired the ancients to create such a specific and sophisticated calendar system that is still used to this day?  

Now it’s up to you. Leave your thoughts on the Hindu Calendar in the comment section below.

Further reading 

https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/epdf/10.1002/spe.4380230404 

https://www.timecenter.com/articles/brief-history-of-the-hindu-calendar-by-timecenter/ 

Calendrical Calculations / Nachum Dershowitz by Edward M. Reingold  

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One of the least understood chapters of this story, and probably the most important for us living in modern civilization, is how and why early civilizations began.

Why did they suddenly appear on different parts of the world at the same time? The time period around 3100 BC is perhaps one of the most important yet poorly understood for humankind.

Because of the antiquity of the first early civilizations, much of what we know has seemingly been lost; however, a comparative look at these early civilizations reveals an insight into our history that is as intriguing as it is mysterious.

In this article we’ll explore the language and history of earth’s early civilizations.

Four early kingships

Although agriculture had been happening on Earth for thousands of years, it was around 3100 BC that four kingships arose in separate locations on the planet. It was this period of self-sustaining culture that marks the beginnings of early civilizations as we think of them today.

As a period of history over 5000 years ago, much of the evidence we have has been confined to mythology and folklore. Only fragments of archaeological evidence survives this span of time. Piecing together a coherent story of the early civilizations has proven difficult for historians. While there is much to the story, we will follow these four early civilizations.

The first four agriculturally based kingships that appear on earth around 3100 BC are:

• Egypt
• Ireland
• China
• Peru

A look at the names of these locations in the ancient Egyptian language immediately draws interesting parallels through their phonetic spelling.

• Taru (Egypt)
• Aaru (Ireland)
• Yiru/iru (China)
• Peru (Peru)

The use of the Egyptian language as a starting point for comparing ancient cultures is assisted by the fact that there is plenty of physical evidence still standing today.

Thousands of ancient texts have been uncovered in Egypt as well as the deciphering of the highly advanced hieroglyphic language, all of which have helped researchers to piece together the connections between early civilizations.

Similar language between the Early Civilizations

One of the safest ways to compare cultures without the luxury of archaeological evidence is through the use of language. It is true that cultures rise and fall, yet words seem to have a way of sticking around. This is perfectly highlighted throughout the ancient Egyptian culture, which lasted continuously for more than 5000 years.

It has been well documented throughout all eras of Egypt’s long and prosperous history that similarly pronounced words maintained a similar meaning. The earliest of the Egyptian priests wrote of these linguistic similarities, and all of the later ones adopted this into their practices.

Just as this relates to ancient Egyptian culture, it is also true for ancient cultures that were completely isolated from Egypt geographically. And surprisingly, the further back in time we go, the more commonalities seem to appear.

Who did all of the ancient cultures adopt their language from? And how did this language spread so quickly across the planet during the era of 3100 BC?

Taru, Aaru, Iru (Yiru), and Peru and four cardinal directions

As we compare language, it is important to note that in ancient times, language was first and foremost phonetic. A modern example of this is found in the Spanish language, where words are pronounced exactly as they are spelled.

Remembering this, a comparison of the phonetics of the four early civilizations reveal correlations to the four cardinal points. Not only is this another link between the early civilizations, there are also similar phonetic titles found cross-culturally between them.

East and West

In the ancient Egyptian language, ‘ar’ translated to sunset, or the direction of west. This is phonetically similar to the ancient Gaelic word ‘Eire’ which also means west (and is the Gaelic name for Ireland.) As both of these words are pointing to the same direction and associated with the name ‘Aaru’, the ancient kingship of Ireland, a lingual connection between the separate cultures arises.

Not only is this the case, the term ‘ta’ implies east in the Egyptian culture which is the start of the word ‘Taru’, the name originally associated with Egypt. It was the quasi-mythical Egyptian god Osiris who referred to Abydos–the location in Egypt of the first Dynasty–as ‘the great land’ and named it ‘Taru,’ signifying the first agriculturally based kingship in the newly unified nation.

North and South

Along with these two directional names, the term ‘Pe’ or ‘Per’ in Egyptian translates to the word sky. To better understand this point it is important to remember that Egypt was originally split into regions known as Upper and Lower Egypt.

For reasons still not fully understood, when talking about these regions, common sense directions are reversed; the term Upper is actually referring to the region in the South, with Lower is referring to the North.

This brings us to the directional meaning of the ‘Pe’ in ‘Peru’ as south, which is geographically correct when compared to Egypt. ‘Yiru’ or ‘Iru’, the name for the early civilization located in China, was known through its name as North. The Egyptian word ‘aaa’ means earth and was associated with Lower Egypt.

Lion folklore across early civilizations

According to the Egyptian language, the names of these four early civilizations relate not only to each other, but also to the cardinal points. Here’s a look at the meaning of the second half of their names.

In the ancient Egyptian language, the term ‘ru’ translated to lion. This word makes up the second half of each of the names of the four early civilizations and is the most notable similarity to these cultures. What makes this even more interesting is the fact that the Egyptian language appears fully formed right at the time of their first dynasty at 3100 BC, meaning the names for these places existed since the earliest period of their civilization.

The Great Sphinx of Egypt is perhaps the greatest carved stone figure ever made by human hand and was without doubt extremely important in the Egyptian’s eyes. The half man, half lion sculpture has long been associated with the Egyptian culture and has symbolized their civilization since its beginnings.

Alongside this, many ancient cultures have the symbol of a lion relating to their earliest kingships. In China, the lion is a known symbol that has long been associated with the earliest of kingships at 3100 BC. Not only is this a similar outlook to the Egyptians, it is also true in Ireland – with lion symbolism present from archaic times all the way to the present day.

A literal translation of these names can now be interpreted as –

• Aaru, ‘Lion of the West’
• Taru, ‘Lion of the East’
• Yiru or Iru, ‘Lion of the North’
• Peru, ‘Lion of the South’

Commonalities between the Four Early Civilizations

• Egypt

Although historians disagree on the name, it is thought that the first Egyptian dynasty began around 3100 BC. This period in ancient times was when the regions known as Upper and Lower Egypt were unified and a culture of stable agriculture and living was established.

Through Egyptian language and hieroglyphs, commonalities appear between these early civilizations. Each also share the enigmatic nature in which the Egyptian civilization appears along with its counterparts.

• Ireland

The first signs of sophisticated farming, megalithic construction, and agricultural practices appear in the UK around 3200 BC on an island in Northern Scotland called Orkney Island. A Neolithic village settlement has been found there called Skara Brae, and has created more questions than answers for researchers.

What makes this ancient site so special is the fact that it is the first appearance of an agriculturally based kingship found in all of the UK. The little island inspired a flourish of similar farming, building, and living practices to follow suit across the entirety of the country. Although it has been so important in the story of the early civilizations of the UK, no one can agree on who the inhabitants were, what inspired them to commence civilization, and why they were in such a remote location.

There are not many texts left to us from this time throughout Ireland, however it was around 3200 BC that the earliest megalithic structures begin appearing across Ireland and the UK in general.

The most famous of these structures is Newgrange, located in the east of Ireland. The building of these sophisticated structures would only be possible by a culture possessing the luxury of a stable system of agriculture and farming able to generate a surplus of food for the workforce.

There are also similar carvings found at Newgrange that match those found in Egypt that relate to the area in which ‘Aaru’ (Ireland) was said to lie. This is yet another strange connection between these early civilizations.

• China

During the same time period that the first agriculturally based kingships begin to appear in China. It is thought that around 3000 BC the Yang Shao culture emerged, with evidence of large farming villages and pottery dating to this time.

Another link between ancient China and Egypt is the ‘well-field’ farming technique. It involves having nine plots of land laid out as a 3×3 grid. Each has a center plot used as a communal well. Not only was this system evident in China, it is still implemented by the modern day Dogon tribe of West Africa, who are thought to have descended from the Egyptians who were around during 3000 BC.

The most ancient and famous Chinese text is known as the Yijing or I-Ching (pronounced ‘eee’). It contains cosmological and ancient Chinese knowledge. Although this name is Chinese, it bears striking similarity to the Egyptian name for China, ‘Yiru’ or ‘Iru’. The similarity between these phonetics suggest that even in the oldest of times there was a connection between these distant civilizations.

• Peru

The first signs of advanced agriculture appear on the coast of Peru around 3100 BC. They were soon followed by megalithic constructions and organized civil states. From here advanced architecture, irrigation systems, and huge stone constructions were built.

All of these early civilizations attribute their beginnings to the implementation of agriculture and kingships, and Peru is no different. The term ‘Peru’ in ancient Egyptian means ‘men attached to the royal granary’, underlining the idea that stable agriculture and kingship signified the beginnings of civilization.

Along with this, the beginning of the Mesoamerican long count calendar that ended on 2012 started in 3114 BC – the time when Peruvian civilization appeared.

Conclusion

The more we learn about our ancient past, the more we reveal. Could there have been a connection between the four early civilizations?

Analysis of ancient language is a tool researchers will need to keep investigating. It’s crucial we continue to ask the right questions.

Now it’s up to you, what do you think? Is there a connection between these ancient cultures? And if so, could there have been an earlier culture that taught civilizing skills to these four early civilizations? Or did they simply appear by chance at the same time across the world?

Further reading:

The Mystery of Skara Brae by Laird Scranton

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In ancient China religion and cosmology were not separated. There existed a description of the creation of the universe that appeared right at the start of their culture. This cosmology is still alive today, and is conveyed through Buddhist practices and teachings, yet its origins go back further than the written word, beginning with an oral tradition at least 5,000 years old.

Where did this knowledge come from? And how can we interpret it today?

Chinese religion and cosmology holds its roots in such high regard that much of their culture revolved around it. This was expressed through in-depth symbolism and impressive mnemonic devices that continually reminded individuals of their place on the earth.

Ancient practices also linked these ideas to how the universe forms.

The principles of ancient Chinese cosmology can be interpreted today. They provide some of the finest examples of preserved ancient knowledge.

A look at some aspects of this cosmology reveals an ancient civilization that has successfully transmitted their most sacred knowledge through the ages. Conceptual notions as well as physical structures have enabled the earliest of their teachings to remain alive and accessible to us today.

The Ancient Chinese Religion

In early Chinese religion and cosmology, multiplicity–or the creation of the universe–is thought to have arisen from unity. It was believed that in order for space to come into existence, unity must disperse into multiplicity, or duality. This idea runs parallel to the big bang in western science.

However, the ancient Chinese civilization described it as order coming from chaos, a central theme to their teachings. This chaos was thought of as watery and non-material, similar to the primordial waters discussed in the biblical book of Genesis.

One of the fundamental aspects of Chinese cosmology was the idea of squaring the circle, which was expressed in countless ways through the Chinese civilization’s scientific belief systems as well as their religion.

What is Squaring the Circle?

This is the ancient notion of reconciling the heavens and the earth. Symbolically, a square is representative of the earth and all things material, as well as conscious thought; it has edges and corners, meaning that it is physical and can be measured. The circle, on the other hand, is a metaphor for the heavens, as well as the non-material and subconscious, because it is perfectly round it has no beginning or end.

Another way of expressing this is through the hermetic saying, ‘As above, so below’, the idea that the macrocosm of the Universe is unfolding within each individual on a microcosmic level. It was believed that if individuals understood their place within the greater processes of creation, and they went with themselves to explore this creation, they would ultimately live more wholesome and meaningful lives.

The metaphor of squaring the circle was not only employed in China, but also throughout much of the ancient world including Egypt, South America, as well as Greece and the UK.

There are examples found all over the planet of cultures trying to convey their attempts of squaring the circle. One of the clearest examples of this is through the grand symbol of Freemasonry, which makes up their symbol of a setsquare and a compass. The setsquare measures the squareness of the earth, while the compass is used to measure the roundness of the heavens. The idea is to try and understand the two in order to gain insight into the secrets of the universe.

The Chinese Magic Square & Squaring the Circle

One of the earliest examples of magic square imagery is found within ancient Chinese depictions of their creator gods, Fu-xi and Nu-wa. Fu-xi is depicted holding a set square, and Nu-wa a compass. The pair are often shown together, holding their respective tools for measurement.

The magic square was extremely symbolic and important to the Chinese religion. The square is thought to balance yin and yang as well as the concepts of Qi and Feng Shui, and acts as a tool for divinatory purposes.

The magic square was not just symbolic, it had physical aspects too. The well-field system of land distribution in ancient China was a physical manifestation of the 3×3 magic square. The layout of China’s earliest cities was also in accordance to the magic square, adding a physical dimension of depth to the already complex symbolism and function.

Along with these ideas, the magic square embodied aspects of astrology and astronomy. By understanding the numbers on a personal level, individuals could determine when to perform specific tasks, as well as where to build houses, bury their loved ones, or plant specific crops.

How Does the Magic Square Work?

The numbers 1 to 9 make up the magic square, with the number 5 always located in the middle of the grid. The numbers are arranged in such a way that the sum of each row is equal to the sum of each column, as well as diagonal rows. In the earliest magic square, a 3×3 grid, the sum of these numbers all add up to 15.

Odd numbers are considered to possess Yin, or feminine energy, while even numbers are thought of as Yang, or masculine. Each number has different properties and different configurations of these numbers result in different outcomes and interpretations depending on the magic squares used. The magic square also served as the basis for the trigrams of the Yi Jing, or I Ching (the Book of Changes), a Chinese divinatory tool and one of the world’s oldest books that is still widely used today throughout China and the rest of the planet.

Origins of the Magic Square – The Story of Lo Shu

The dating of the myths vary according to historians, but it is generally agreed that sometime around 3000 BC marks the first appearance of the magic square.

The myth begins with an ancient turtle called Lo Shu, who is said to have emerged from the Luo River after a great flood. As Lo Shu emerged from the newly calmed waters, Fu-xi, the mythical founder of Chinese civilization, observed a 3×3 grid on the turtle’s back, with dots that added up to different numbers. From the marking’s on Lo Shu’s shell, Chinese civilization was given the concept of the magic square, (depicted below.)

The way the numbers are arranged in the square can vary; the above image can be mirrored or rotated as long as the numbers still equate to 15.

Not only did the magic square prove to be extremely important within the ancient Chinese civilization, the turtle also became one of the most important symbols and pivotal aspects of the civilization’s cosmology.

Symbolism of the Turtle

There are many layers and meanings associated with the symbolism of the turtle. Many of them rest on the cosmological concept of squaring the circle, which was not only held in absolute reverence by ancient Chinese civilization, but also by many other ancient cultures around the planet.

What is the Symbolic Meaning of the Turtle?

To help members of the ancient Chinese civilization remember their cosmology, many different mnemonic devices were developed, usually in the form of animals, as their physical characteristics were easy to remember and so too were the cosmological traits they symbolized.

The turtle was possibly the most important symbolic animal for the ancient Chinese civilization, which is one of the oldest Chinese symbols, with origins deep in prehistory. It is often associated with creation stories.

In early Chinese mythology, the mother goddess Nu-wa is said to have cut off the legs of a turtle to use as pillars to hold up the crumbling sky, reinforcing the idea that the turtle represents the cosmos. The curve of its shell represents a hemisphere of sky while the flatness of its body represents the earth, and signifies the squaring of the circle, the union of heaven and earth. The turtle’s shell and body were also considered by other ancient cultures – such as the Dogon of West Africa – to symbolize the joining of the sky and earth.

It is specifically stated that these mythological pillars are not cardinal markers. Instead, they are thought to represent the spaces between the four cardinal points, with the head and tail acting like the hands of a compass. Another symbolic reference within this story is the separation of the sky and the earth, ultimately thanks to the pillars that the turtle provides.

Not only was the turtle’s shell the basis for Chinese civilisation’s magic square and city layout, it also embodied extremely complex symbolism that branched off into other aspects of their culture. This has led some researchers to attribute the turtle shell as the source of Chinese mandalas as well as the object which the zodiac rests upon, (a theme similar to the World Turtle of Indian Vedic cosmology who carries four elephants harnessing the planet.)

What is the importance of a Buddhist Stupa?

Chinese religion, particularly Buddhism had practical ways of conveying their same ideas.

This is most apparent in the layout of their ritual shrine known as a Buddhist stupa. The original stupa was a personal ritual shrine built with a square base and a rounded top, yet another way the Chinese civilization expressed the concept of squaring the circle.

The circular shape of the stupa represented multiplicity, and the construction of the shrine itself signified the idea of order manifested through chaos. The construction and layout of the stupa continually reminded the individual of their place within the creation of all things–something that was conceptually acted out both by building and using stupas.

Conclusion

The ancient Chinese religion and cosmology is full of complex and multi-layered meaning. There are many other aspects to the system that are as important and influential which we will explore in future.

Although much of the Chinese civilization has been documented and discussed by researchers, the origins and meaning of much of the earliest tales have never been agreed upon.

We are only just beginning to put the pieces together to understand this advanced cosmology.

What do you think the source and inspiration for this set of teachings was?

Further Reading

China’s Cosmological Prehistory by Laird Scranton
Symbolism of the Stupa by Adrian Snodgrass

The post The Secrets of Ancient Chinese Religion & Cosmology appeared first on .

If you don’t celebrate Chinese New Year, you’re missing one of the biggest parties on the planet. However, very few people fully understand how the day of the festival is chosen. The date of Chinese New Year falls on a different day each year.

Fewer people understand how the whole Chinese Calendar works. The entire system involves when Chinese New Year falls with lunar cycles and ancient astronomy including the Chinese zodiac.

In this article, we’ll explain everything you need to know about the Chinese Calendar.

What calendar does China use?

The 2019 Chinese Calendar with Chinese New Year and twelve lunar months.

Today China has adopted the Gregorian Calendar for official purposes. Yet, many people hold to the traditions to celebrate the Chinese New Year. The ancient system dates to the 14^th century BCE and records astronomy beyond a purely solar calendar. It is a Lunisolar system, and parts of the calendar include the Chinese zodiac.

Like the solar-based Gregorian calendar, the Chinese Calendar year is made up of twelve months. It equates to twelve complete lunar cycles.

There are also leap years where thirteen months fall in a year. The extra month is added roughly once every three years. Like leap-years in the Gregorian calendar, the purpose is to re-align the calendar with the seasons. However, it appears to be a much more accurate system than the modern version.

Calculating the leap years is also tricky. As a general rule, seven leap months are added across a nineteen year period.

The Chinese month & new moon cycle

The arrival of a new moon determines the first day of the month. In the lunar cycle, the new moon is when the surface is entirely dark (opposite to full moon). During the month it grows from a crescent moon to full moon and back to the dark new moon.

The night of the new moon rising is regarded as the first day of the month. Regardless of what time it rises the beginning of that day marks the start of the month. Suppose the new moon rises at 8 pm, the entire day is the first day of the new month.

If you track the lunar cycle, you’ll find it shifts from month to month. That means the number of days in a month will change from year to year. It depends on watching the moon phases.

The ancient Chinese civilization observed these at the meridian line 120 degrees east to avoid conflicting results.

Over time, the length of a Chinese year changes between 353 and 355 days, and 383 and 385 for leap years.

Like all ancient calendar systems, the Chinese Calendar adjusts as the astronomy changes.

The Chinese Calendar year and zodiac signs

The Chinese Calendar contains a longer count zodiac coinciding with elements aligned with the twelve zodiac animal signs.

The Gregorian year is made up of twelve months that complete a year. The Chinese calendar is arranged differently.

Twelve years make up a larger cycle of time known as the Chinese Zodiac. It has zodiac animals, each relating to a specific year.

The twelve animals that make up the Chinese Zodiac Signs include:

• Rat (Zi)
• Ox (Chou)
• Tiger (Yin)
• Rabbit (Mao)
• Dragon (Chen)
• Snake (Si)
• Horse(Wu)
• Sheep (Wei)
• Monkey (Shen)
• Rooster (You)
• Dog (Xu)
• Pig (Hai)

Each year is named after an animal.

For example:

2018: Year of the Dog

2019: Year of the Pig

2020: Year of the Rat

The cycle continues through the twelve-year zodiac animal signs.

A dual solar and lunar calendar

The Chinese calendar is a Lunisolar calendar. That means it uses both the sun and moon to mark the years and festivals.

A solar year consists of 365 days. It calculates the time it takes the earth to make one full revolution around the sun — the most well-known calendar system in the world

The Gregorian system is a purely solar calendar.

The Chinese calendar uses moon cycles to mark the start of months. For years, a count of the sun and moon are used.

Within the process, there’s a difficulty. Lunar years are eleven days shorter than solar years. On average, the lunar year consists of just over 354 days (354.36707 to be exact).

A Lunisolar calendar calibrates solar and lunar years. Specific phases of the moon are used to determine the starting of months and seasons, as well as working out important new year festivals.

The solar year is calibrated by the December solstice (December 21). It’s the time the sun reaches its most northerly or southerly path with the tilt of the equator.

The Chinese New Year occurs as the second new moon after the December Solstice.

Let’s explore the calculation of the Chinese New Year.

Which Countries Celebrate Chinese New Year?

The Lunisolar Chinese New Year Calendar is celebrated across the world.

Countries that have a national public holiday to celebrate Chinese New Year include:

• China
• South Korea
• Indonesia
• Singapore
• Malaysia
• Brunei
• Taiwan
• Hong Kong
• Laos
• Vietnam
• Christmas Island

Calculation of the Chinese New Year has a set of rules. However, many exceptions can make things confusing.

Generally speaking, the Chinese New Year falls between January 21 and February 21.

The precise date is the second new moon after the December solstice (December 21)

Each year the date is pushed back by 10, 11, or even 12 days compared to the previous year. It’s always true unless the New Year will fall outside the range of Jan 21 to Feb 21.

If it does, a leap month is slotted in. In leap years, Chinese New Year day will instead jump 18, 19, or 20 days ahead to continue the pattern.

Dates of Chinese New Year from 1996, 2019, up until 2031.

There is also another way in which the Chinese New Year is determined. The date that the new moon arrives which is closest to the beginning of spring. It is also used as a marker for the date.

This is the reason the festival is also known as the Spring Festival. It isn’t a foolproof way of calculating the day. The beginning of spring falls on or around the 4^th of February. There is often confusion as to which new moon is the closest.

The problem is highlighted by a very late or very early Chinese New Year. Here the new moon could land evenly spaced before and after February 4^th but still within the dates of January 21 and February 21.

The 60-year Jupiter element cycle

The celestial branch elements of the Chinese calendar.

Along with the Chinese Zodiac, there is another longer count to the Chinese calendar that measures the orbital period of Jupiter.

It is a 60-year cycle that incorporates the twelve animals of the zodiac. These zodiac animals are the ‘terrestrial stems’ which are mixed with ten elements or ‘celestial branches.’

The celestial branches or elements include:

• Wood (Jia)
• Cut Timber (Yi)
• Fire (Bing)
• Artificial Fire (Ding)
• Earth (Wu)
• Pottery (Ji)
• Metal (Geng)
• Wrought Metal (Xin)
• Running Water (Ren)
• Stagnant Water (Gui)

It is a combination of these branches and stems that make up the 60-year cycle beginning with ‘rat-wood’ (Jia-Xi) and running sequentially through until the year ‘pig-stagnant water’ (Gui-Hai).

During this period, leap months don’t come into the picture, meaning it is difficult to predict specific years, as some are longer than others.

Instead of leap months, some years in this period are just given an extra long month to make up for the extra days.

In Chinese astrology, the year, month, day, and even hour of birth calculates a specific astronomical moment. Within the 60-year Jupiter cycle, it helps to keep track of these times.

Its origins may be traced back to the 12 months of the year, interlaced with the ten days of the original Chinese week.

Conclusion

The Chinese calendar has been tweaked and updated for at least 5000 years. Although China has now adopted the Gregorian system as its official timekeeping method, the ancient Chinese Calendar is still followed and referred to for astronomy and ancient practices.

Calculating the Chinese New Year requires the measurement of both the solar and Lunar Calendars. It is a system far more complex than a purely solar calendar.

There are quite a few mysteries concerning the tradition. Perhaps most notably its origins as well as the meaning of the animals of the zodiac.

Today you can use the Chinese New Year and also Chinese zodiac to calculate your birth animal.

Now it’s up to you.

What do you find most fascinating about the Chinese Calendar?

Leave your thoughts in the comment section below.

Further Reading:

• http://edsitement.neh.gov
• http://chinese.astrology.com
• http://chinesezodiac.com
• http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/cal.pdf

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